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Der Beitrag zeigt, auf welch grundlegende Weise das Paradigma der Corpus-Driven-Linguistics (CDL) die linguistische Beschreibung sprachlichen Usus auf der Basis mathematisch-statistischer Clusteringverfahren bestimmt. Es soll deutlich werden, wie sich diese Prämissen im Forschungsschwerpunkt zur linguistischen Systematisierung und Interpretation von Kookkurrenzdaten manifestieren.
Arbeitet man als muttersprachlicher Sprecher des Deutschen mit Corpora gesprochener oder geschriebener deutscher Sprache, dann reflektiert man in aller Regel nur selten über die Vielzahl von kulturspezifischen Informationen, die in solchen Texten kodifiziert sind - vor allem, wenn es sich bei diesen Daten um Texte aus der Gegenwart handelt. In den meisten Fällen hat man nämlich keinerlei Probleme mit dem in den Daten präsupponierten und als allgemein bekannt erachteten Hintergrundswissen. Betrachtet man dagegen Daten in Corpora, die andere - vor allem nicht-indoeuropäische - Sprachen dokumentieren, dann wird einem schnell bewusst, wieviel an kulturspezifischem Wissen nötig ist, um diese Daten adäquat zu verstehen. In meinem Beitrag illustriere ich diese Beobachtung an einem Beispiel aus meinem Corpus des Kilivila, der austronesischen Sprache der Trobriand-Insulaner von Papua-Neuguinea. Anhand eines kurzen Ausschnitts einer insgesamt etwa 26 Minuten dauernden Dokumentation, worüber und wie sechs Trobriander miteinander tratschen und klatschen, zeige ich, was ein Hörer oder Leser eines solchen kurzen Daten-Ausschnitts wissen muss, um nicht nur dem Gespräch überhaupt folgen zu können, sondern auch um zu verstehen, was dabei abläuft und wieso ein auf den ersten Blick absolut alltägliches Gespräch plötzlich für einen Trobriander ungeheuer an Brisanz und Bedeutung gewinnt. Vor dem Hintergrund dieses Beispiels weise ich dann zum Schluss meines Beitrags darauf hin, wie unbedingt nötig und erforderlich es ist, in allen Corpora bei der Erschließung und Kommentierung von Datenmaterialien durch sogenannte Metadaten solche kulturspezifischen Informationen explizit zu machen.
"Themengebundene Verwendung(en)" als neuer Angabetyp unter der Rubrik "Besonderheiten des Gebrauchs"
(2011)
This thesis is a corpus linguistic investigation of the language used by young German speakers online, examining lexical, morphological, orthographic, and syntactic features and changes in language use over time. The study analyses the language in the Nottinghamer Korpus deutscher YouTube‐Sprache ("Nottingham corpus of German YouTube language", or NottDeuYTSch corpus), one of the first large corpora of German‐language comments taken from the videosharing website YouTube, and built specifically for this project. The metadatarich corpus comprises c.33 million tokens from more than 3 million comments posted underneath videos uploaded by mainstream German‐language youthorientated YouTube channels from 2008‐2018.
The NottDeuYTSch corpus was created to enable corpus linguistic approaches to studying digital German youth language (Jugendsprache), having identified the need for more specialised web corpora (see Barbaresi 2019). The methodology for compiling the corpus is described in detail in the thesis to facilitate future construction of web corpora. The thesis is situated at the intersection of Computer‐Mediated Communication (CMC) and youth language, which have been important areas of sociolinguistic scholarship since the 1980s, and explores what we can learn from a corpus‐driven, longitudinal approach to (online) youth language. To do so, the thesis uses corpus linguistic methods to analyse three main areas:
1. Lexical trends and the morphology of polysemous lexical items. For this purpose, the analysis focuses on geil, one of the most iconic and productive words in youth language, and presents a longitudinal analysis, demonstrating that usage of geil has decreased, and identifies lexical items that have emerged as potential replacements. Additionally, geil is used to analyse innovative morphological productiveness, demonstrating how different senses of geil are used as a base lexeme or affixoid in compounding and derivation.
2. Syntactic developments. The novel grammaticalization of several subordinating conjunctions into both coordinating conjunctions and discourse markers is examined. The investigation is supported by statistical analyses that demonstrate an increase in the use of non‐standard syntax over the timeframe of the corpus and compares the results with other corpora of written language.
3. Orthography and the metacommunicative features of digital writing. This analysis identifies orthographic features and strategies in the corpus, e.g. the repetition of certain emoji, and develops a holistic framework to study metacommunicative functions, such as the communication of illocutionary force, information structure, or the expression of identities. The framework unifies previous research that had focused on individual features, integrating a wide range of metacommunicative strategies within a single, robust system of analysis.
By using qualitative and computational analytical frameworks within corpus linguistic methods, the thesis identifies emergent linguistic features in digital youth language in German and sheds further light on lexical and morphosyntactic changes and trends in the language of young people over the period 2008‐2018. The study has also further developed and augmented existing analytical frameworks to widen the scope of their application to orthographic features associated with digital writing.
The paper reports the results of the curation project ChatCorpus2CLARIN. The goal of the project was to develop a workflow and resources for the integration of an existing chat corpus into the CLARIN-D research infrastructure for language resources and tools in the Humanities and the Social Sciences (http://clarin-d.de). The paper presents an overview of the resources and practices developed in the project, describes the added value of the resource after its integration and discusses, as an outlook, to what extent these practices can be considered best practices which may be useful for the annotation and representation of other CMC and social media corpora.
This paper presents the application of the <tiger2/> format to various linguistic scenarios with the aim of making it the standard serialisation for the ISO 24615 [1] (SynAF) standard. After outlining the main characteristics of both the SynAF metamodel and the <tiger2/> format, as extended from the initial Tiger XML format [2], we show through a range of different language families how <tiger2/> covers a variety of constituency and dependency based analyses.
This introductory tutorial describes a strictly corpus-driven approach for uncovering indications for aspects of use of lexical items. These aspects include ‘(lexical) meaning’ in a very broad sense and involve different dimensions, they are established in and emerge from respective discourses. Using data-driven mathematical-statistical methods with minimal (linguistic) premises, a word’s usage spectrum is summarized as a collocation profile. Self-organizing methods are applied to visualize the complex similarity structure spanned by these profiles. These visualizations point to the typical aspects of a word’s use, and to the common and distinctive aspects of any two words.
To build a comparable Wikipedia corpus of German, French, Italian, Norwegian, Polish and Hungarian for contrastive grammar research, we used a set of XSLT stylesheets to transform the mediawiki anntations to XML. Furthermore, the data has been amnntated with word class information using different taggers. The outcome is a corpus with rich meta data and linguistic annotation that can be used for multilingual research in various linguistic topics.
Song lyrics can be considered as a text genre that has features of both written and spoken discourse, and potentially provides extensive linguistic and cultural information to scientists from various disciplines. However, pop songs play a rather subordinate role in empirical language research so far - most likely due to the absence of scientifically valid and sustainable resources. The present paper introduces a multiply annotated corpus of German lyrics as a publicly available basis for multidisciplinary research. The resource contains three types of data for the investigation and evaluation of quite distinct phenomena: TEI-compliant song lyrics as primary data, linguistically and literary motivated annotations, and extralinguistic metadata. It promotes empirically/statistically grounded analyses of genre-specific features, systemic-structural correlations and tendencies in the texts of contemporary pop music. The corpus has been stratified into thematic and author-specific archives; the paper presents some basic descriptive statistics, as well as the public online frontend with its built-in evaluation forms and live visualisations.
This report presents a corpus of articulations recorded with Schlieren photography, a recording technique to visualize aeroflow dynamics for two purposes. First, as a means to investigate aerodynamic processes during speech production without any obstruction of the lips and the nose. Second, to provide material for lecturers of phonetics to illustrates these aerodynamic processes. Speech production was recorded with 10 kHz frame rate for statistical video analyses. Downsampled videos (500 Hz) were uplodad to a youtube channel for illustrative purposes. Preliminary analyses demonstrate potential in applying Schlieren photography in research.
In this paper, we will present a first attempt to classify commonly confused words in German by consulting their communicative functions in corpora. Although the use of so-called paronyms causes frequent uncertainties due to similarities in spelling, sound and semantics, up until now the phenomenon has attracted little attention either from the perspective of corpus linguistics or from cognitive linguistics. Existing investigations rely on structuralist models, which do not account for empirical evidence. Still, they have developed an elaborate model based on formal criteria, primarily on word formation (cf. Lăzărescu 1999). Looking from a corpus perspective, such classifications are incompatible with language in use and cognitive elements of misuse.
This article sketches first lexicological insights into a classification model as derived from semantic analyses of written communication. Firstly, a brief description of the project will be provided. Secondly, corpus-assisted paronym detection will be focused. Thirdly, in the main section the paper concerns the description of the datasets for paronym classification and the classification procedures. As a work in progress, new insights will continually be extended once spoken and CMC data are added to the investigations.
This paper presents a short insight into a new project at the "Institute for the German Language” (IDS) (Mannheim). It gives an insight into some basic ideas for a corpus-based dictionary of spoken German, which will be developed and compiled by the new project "The Lexicon of spoken German” (Lexik des gesprochenen Deutsch, LeGeDe). The work is based on the "Research and Teaching Corpus of Spoken German” (Forschungs- und Lehrkorpus Gesprochenes Deutsch, FOLK), which is implemented in the "Database for Spoken German” (Datenbank für Gesprochenes Deutsch, DGD). Both resources, the database and the corpus, have been developed at the IDS.
This paper presents the prototype of a lexicographic resource for spoken German in interaction, which was conceived within the framework of the LeGeDe-project (LeGeDe=Lexik des gesprochenen Deutsch). First of all, it summarizes the theoretical and methodological approaches that were used for the initial planning of the resource. The headword candidates were selected by analyzing corpus-based data. Therefore, the data of two corpora (written and spoken German) were compared with quantitative methods. The information that was gathered on the selected headword candidates can be assigned to two different sections: meanings and functions in interaction.
Additionally, two studies on the expectations of future users towards the resource were carried out. The results of these two studies were also taken into account in the development of the prototype. Focusing on the presentation of the resource’s content, the paper shows both the different lexicographical information in selected dictionary entries, and the information offered by the provided hyperlinks and external texts. As a conclusion, it summarizes the most important innovative aspects that were specifically developed for the implementation of such a resource.
Ph@ttSessionz and Deutsch heute are two large German speech databases. They were created for different purposes: Ph@ttSessionz to test Internet-based recordings and to adapt speech recognizers to the voices of adolescent speakers, Deutsch heute to document regional variation of German. The databases differ in their recording technique, the selection of recording locations and speakers, elicitation mode, and data processing.
In this paper, we outline how the recordings were performed, how the data was processed and annotated, and how the two databases were imported into a single relational database system. We present acoustical measurements on the digit items of both databases. Our results confirm that the elicitation technique affects the speech produced, that f0 is quite comparable despite different recording procedures, and that large speech technology databases with suitable metadata may well be used for the analysis of regional variation of speech.
In this paper, an exploratory data-driven method is presented that extracts word-types from diachronic corpora that have undergone the most pronounced change in frequency of occurrence in a given period of time. Combined with statistical methods from time series analysis, the method is able to find meaningful patterns and relationships in diachronic corpora, an idea that is still uncommon in linguistics. This indicates that the approach can facilitate an improved understanding of diachronic processes.
The present paper reports the first results of the compilation and annotation of a blog corpus for German. The main aim of the project is the representation of the blog discourse structure and relations between its elements (blog posts, comments) and participants (bloggers, commentators). The data included in the corpus were manually collected from the scientific blog portal SciLogs. The feature catalogue for the corpus annotation includes three types of information which is directly or indirectly provided in the blog or can be construed by means of statistical analysis or computational tools. At this point, only directly available information (e.g. title of the blog post, name of the blogger etc.) has been annotated. We believe, our blog corpus can be of interest for the general study of blog structure or related research questions as well as for the development of NLP methods and techniques (e.g. for authorship detection).
We present an implemented XML data model and a new, simplified query language for multi-level annotated corpora. The new query language involves automatic conversion of queries into the underlying, more complicated MMAXQL query language. It supports queries for sequential and hierarchical, but also associative (e.g. coreferential) relations. The simplified query language has been designed with non-expert users in mind.
A key difference between traditional humanities research and the emerging field of digital humanities is that the latter aims to complement qualitative methods with quantitative data. In linguistics, this means the use of large corpora of text, which are usually annotated automatically using natural language processing tools. However, these tools do not exist for historical texts, so scholars have to work with unannotated data. We have developed a system for systematic iterative exploration and annotation of historical text corpora, which relies on an XML database (BaseX) and in particular on the Full Text and Update facilities of XQuery.
In this paper, a method for measuring synchronic corpus (dis-)similarity put forward by Kilgarriff (2001) is adapted and extended to identify trends and correlated changes in diachronic text data, using the Corpus of Historical American English (Davies 2010a) and the Google Ngram Corpora (Michel et al. 2010a). This paper shows that this fully data-driven method, which extracts word types that have undergone the most pronounced change in frequency in a given period of time, is computationally very cheap and that it allows interpretations of diachronic trends that are both intuitively plausible and motivated from the perspective of information theory. Furthermore, it demonstrates that the method is able to identify correlated linguistic changes and diachronic shifts that can be linked to historical events. Finally, it can help to improve diachronic POS tagging and complement existing NLP approaches. This indicates that the approach can facilitate an improved understanding of diachronic processes in language change.
Linguistic query systems are special purpose IR applications. We present a novel state-of-the-art approach for the efficient exploitation of very large linguistic corpora, combining the advantages of relational database management systems (RDBMS) with the functional MapReduce programming model. Our implementation uses the German DEREKO reference corpus with multi-layer linguistic annotations and several types of text-specific metadata, but the proposed strategy is language-independent and adaptable to large-scale multilingual corpora.
We present a gold standard for semantic relation extraction in the food domain for German. The relation types that we address are motivated by scenarios for which IT applications present a commercial potential, such as virtual customer advice in which a virtual agent assists a customer in a supermarket in finding those products that satisfy their needs best. Moreover, we focus on those relation types that can be extracted from natural language text corpora, ideally content from the internet, such as web forums, that are easy to retrieve. A typical relation type that meets these requirements are pairs of food items that are usually consumed together. Such a relation type could be used by a virtual agent to suggest additional products available in a shop that would potentially complement the items a customer has already in their shopping cart. Our gold standard comprises structural data, i.e. relation tables, which encode relation instances. These tables are vital in order to evaluate natural language processing systems that extract those relations.
We present a testsuite for POS tagging German web data. Our testsuite provides the original raw text as well as the gold tokenisations and is annotated for parts-of-speech. The testsuite includes a new dataset for German tweets, with a current size of 3,940 tokens. To increase the size of the data, we harmonised the annotations in already existing web corpora, based on the Stuttgart-Tübingen Tag Set. The current version of the corpus has an overall size of 48,344 tokens of web data, around half of it from Twitter. We also present experiments, showing how different experimental setups (training set size, additional out-of-domain training data, self-training) influence the accuracy of the taggers. All resources and models will be made publicly available to the research community.
One of the fundamental questions about human language is whether all languages are equally complex. Here, we approach this question from an information-theoretic perspective. We present a large scale quantitative cross-linguistic analysis of written language by training a language model on more than 6500 different documents as represented in 41 multilingual text collections consisting of ~ 3.5 billion words or ~ 9.0 billion characters and covering 2069 different languages that are spoken as a native language by more than 90% of the world population. We statistically infer the entropy of each language model as an index of what we call average prediction complexity. We compare complexity rankings across corpora and show that a language that tends to be more complex than another language in one corpus also tends to be more complex in another corpus. In addition, we show that speaker population size predicts entropy. We argue that both results constitute evidence against the equi-complexity hypothesis from an information-theoretic perspective.
We apply a decision tree based approach to pronoun resolution in spoken dialogue. Our system deals with pronouns with NP- and non-NP-antecedents. We present a set of features designed for pronoun resolution in spoken dialogue and determine the most promising features. We evaluate the system on twenty Switchboard dialogues and show that it compares well to Byron’s (2002) manually tuned system.
This paper presents three electronic collections of polarity items: (i) negative polarity items in Romanian, (ii) negative polarity items in German, and (iii) positive polarity items in German. The presented collections are a part of a linguistic resource on lexical units with highly idiosyncratic occurrence patterns. The motivation for collecting and documenting polarity items was to provide a solid empirical basis for linguistic investigations of these expressions. Our databe provides general information about the collected items, specifies their syntactic properties, and describes the environment that licenses a given item. For each licensing context, examples from various corpora and the Internet are introduced. Finally, the type of polarity (negative or positive) and the class (superstrong, strong, weak or open) associated with a given item is speci ed. Our database is encoded in XML and is available via the Internet, offering dynamic and exible access.
We present a new resource for German causal language, with annotations in context for verbs, nouns and adpositions. Our dataset includes 4,390 annotated instances for more than 150 different triggers. The annotation scheme distinguishes three different types of causal events (CONSEQUENCE, MOTIVATION, PURPOSE). We also provide annotations for semantic roles, i.e. of the cause and effect for the causal event as well as the actor and affected party, if present. In the paper, we present inter-annotator agreement scores for our dataset and discuss problems for annotating causal language. Finally, we present experiments where we frame causal annotation as a sequence labelling problem and report baseline results for the prediciton of causal arguments and for predicting different types of causation.
Classical null hypothesis significance tests are not appropriate in corpus linguistics, because the randomness assumption underlying these testing procedures is not fulfilled. Nevertheless, there are numerous scenarios where it would be beneficial to have some kind of test in order to judge the relevance of a result (e.g. a difference between two corpora) by answering the question whether the attribute of interest is pronounced enough to warrant the conclusion that it is substantial and not due to chance. In this paper, I outline such a test.
This paper presents the current results of an ongoing research project on corpus distribution of prepositions and pronouns within Polish preposition-pronoun contractions. The goal of the project is to provide a quantitative description of Polish preposition-pronoun contractions taking into consideration morphosyntactic properties of their components. It is expected that the results will provide a basis for a revision of the traditionally assumed inflectional paradigms of Polish pronouns and, thus, for a possible remodeling of these paradigms. The results of corpus-based investigations of the distribution of prepositions within preposition-pronoun contractions can be used for grammar-theoretical and lexicographic purposes.
Feedback utterances are among the most frequent in dialogue. Feedback is also a crucial aspect of linguistic theories that take social interaction, involving language, into account. This paper introduces the corpora and datasets of a project scrutinizing this kind of feedback utterances in French. We present the genesis of the corpora (for a total of about 16 hours of transcribed and phone force-aligned speech) involved in the project. We introduce the resulting datasets and discuss how they are being used in on-going work with focus on the form-function relationship of conversational feedback. All the corpora created and the datasets produced in the framework of this project will be made available for research purposes.
A syntax-based scheme for the annotation and segmentation of German spoken language interactions
(2018)
Unlike corpora of written language where segmentation can mainly be derived from orthographic punctuation marks, the basis for segmenting spoken language corpora is not predetermined by the primary data, but rather has to be established by the corpus compilers. This impedes consistent querying and visualization of such data. Several ways of segmenting have been proposed,
some of which are based on syntax. In this study, we developed and evaluated annotation and segmentation guidelines in reference to the topological field model for German. We can show that these guidelines are used consistently across annotators. We also investigated the influence of various interactional settings with a rather simple measure, the word-count per segment and unit-type. We observed that the word count and the distribution of each unit type differ in varying interactional settings and that our developed segmentation and annotation guidelines are used consistently across annotators. In conclusion, our syntax-based segmentations reflect interactional properties that are intrinsic to the social interactions that participants are involved in. This can be used for further analysis of social interaction and opens the possibility for automatic segmentation of transcripts.
In diesem Kapitel stellen wir zunächst grundlegende Konzepte von Abfragesystemen und Abfragesprachen für die Suche in Korpora vor. Diese Konzepte sollen Ihnen helfen, die einzelnen Abfragesprachen besser zu verstehen und vergleichen zu können. Die gängigen Abfragesprachen unterscheiden sich in vielen Details. Diese Details und die Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der einzelnen Abfragesprachen stellen wir im zweiten Teil mit vielen Beispielaufgaben und dazu passenden Lösungen in jeweils drei Abfragesprachen vor.
The Manatee corpus management system on which the Sketch Engine is built is efficient, but unable to harness the power of today’s multiprocessor machines. We describe a new, compatible implementation of Manatee which we develop in the Go language and report on the performance gains that we obtained.
We present an approach to an aspect of managing complex access scenarios to large and heterogeneous corpora that involves handling user queries that, intentionally or due to the complexity of the queried resource, target texts or annotations outside of the given user’s permissions. We first outline the overall architecture of the corpus analysis platform KorAP, devoting some attention to the way in which it handles multiple query languages, by implementing ISO CQLF (Corpus Query Lingua Franca), which in turn constitutes a component crucial for the functionality discussed here. Next, we look at query rewriting as it is used by KorAP and zoom in on one kind of this procedure, namely the rewriting of queries that is forced by data access restrictions.
In this paper, we present an overview of freely available web applications providing online access to spoken language corpora. We explore and discuss various solutions with which the corpus providers and corpus platform developers address the needs of researchers who are working with spoken language. The paper aims to contribute to the long-overdue exchange and discussion of methods and best practices in the design of online access to spoken language corpora.
Im Beitrag werden ausgewählte semantische und syntaktische Eigenschaften von AcI-Konstruktionen bei Wahrnehmungsverben im Deutschen, Italienischen und Ungarischen anhand einer Korpusanalyse dargestellt. Dabei wird in erster Linie auf Eigenschaften eingegangen, denen in der bisherigen Forschung wenig Aufmerksamkeit gewidmet wurde. Das Hauptziel ist, syntaktische Eigenschaften der Konstruktion aufzudecken, die sich von den Eigenschaften von Sätzen mit einer weniger markierten syntaktischen Struktur unterscheiden. Des Weiteren wird auch auf den Grammatikalisierungsgrad der Konstruktion in den einzelnen Vergleichssprachen eingegangen.
This paper presents Release 2.0 of the SALSA corpus, a German resource for lexical semantics. The new corpus release provides new annotations for German nouns, complementing the existing annotations of German verbs in Release 1.0. The corpus now includes around 24,000 sentences with more than 36,000 annotated instances. It was designed with an eye towards NLP applications such as semantic role labeling but will also be a useful resource for linguistic studies in lexical semantics.
This paper addresses long-term archival for large corpora. Three aspects specific to language resources are focused, namely (1) the removal of resources for legal reasons, (2) versioning of (unchanged) objects in constantly growing resources, especially where objects can be part of multiple releases but also part of different collections, and (3) the conversion of data to new formats for digital preservation. It is motivated why language resources may have to be changed, and why formats may need to be converted. As a solution, the use of an intermediate proxy object called a signpost is suggested. The approach will be exemplified with respect to the corpora of the Leibniz Institute for the German Language in Mannheim, namely the German Reference Corpus (DeReKo) and the Archive for Spoken German (AGD).
Eine korpuslinguistische Untersuchung mit umfassender Analyse der häufiger vorkommenenden Adverbbildungsmuster des Deutschen legt nahe, dass die Sättigung des internen Argumentplatzes eines ursprünglich relationalen Ausdrucks eine wichtige Rolle bei der Adverbproduktion spielt (Brandt 2020). Eine genauere Betrachtung der Unterschiede zwischen -ermaßen- vs. -erweise-Adverbien deutet auf eine grammatische Unterscheidung zwischen Satzadverbien und Adverbien der Art und Weise: Im Fall von -ermaßen erfolgt die Sättigung über Token-Reflexivität, während der interne Slot von -erweise- Bildungen über häufigere und möglicherweise expansive Mechanismen geschlossen wird. Darüber hinaus fördert die pleonastische Qualität von Bildungen auf der Basis gerundivaler Partizipien die Produktivität von -erweise Adverbien.
This paper investigates the use of linking adverbs in adversative constructions in German and Italian. In Italian those constructions are very frequently formulated with adverbs such as invece, while wordings without a lexical connective are more typical of German. Corpus data show that the syntactic und semantic conditions favouring the use of adversative adverbs are by and large the same in both languages. Lexical connectives can increase explicitness when the intended adversative interpretation is not obvious on other grounds. The higher frequency of adversative adverbs in Italian is shown to be a consequence of the more restrictive rules of the placement of prosodic accent.
In the first volume of Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory, Gries (2005. Null-hypothesis significance testing of word frequencies: A follow-up on Kilgarriff. Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory 1(2). doi:10.1515/ cllt.2005.1.2.277. http://www.degruyter.com/view/j/cllt.2005.1.issue-2/cllt.2005. 1.2.277/cllt.2005.1.2.277.xml: 285) asked whether corpus linguists should abandon null-hypothesis significance testing. In this paper, I want to revive this discussion by defending the argument that the assumptions that allow inferences about a given population – in this case about the studied languages – based on results observed in a sample – in this case a collection of naturally occurring language data – are not fulfilled. As a consequence, corpus linguists should indeed abandon null-hypothesis significance testing.