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Discourse metaphors
(2008)
The article introduces the notion of discourse metaphor, relatively stable metaphorical mappings that function as a key framing device within a particular discourse over a certain period of time. Discourse metaphors are illustrated by case studies from three lines of research: on the cultural imprint of metaphors, on the negotiation of metaphors and on cross-linguistic occurrence. The source concepts of discourse metaphors refer to phenomenologically salient real or fictitious objects that are part of interactional space (i.e., can be pointed at, like MACHINES or HOUSES) and/or occupy an important place in cultural imagination. Discourse metaphors change both over time and across the discourses where they are used. The implications of focussing on different types of source domains for our thinking about the embodiment and sociocultural situatedness of metaphor is discussed, with particular reference to recent developments in Conceptual Metaphor Theory. Research on discourse suggests that situatedness is a crucial factor in the functioning and dynamics of metaphor.
‘Linguistic relativity’ has become a major keyword in debates on the psychological significance of language diversity. In this context, the term ‘relativity’ was originally taken on loan from Einstein’s then-recent theories by Edward Sapir (1924) and Benjamin L. Whorf (1940). The present paper assesses how far the idea of linguistic relativity does analogically build on relevant insights in modern physics, and fails to find any substantial analogies. The term was used rhetorically by Sapir and Whorf, and has since been incorporated into a cognitivist research programme that seeks to answer whether ‘language influences thought’. Contemporary research on ‘linguistic relativity’ has developed into a distinct way of studying language diversity, which shares a lot with the universalistic cognitivist framework it opposes, but little with relational approaches in science.
Badania etnolingwistyczne zdobyly w ciqgu ostatnich dwu dekad znaozna populamosc. Najwazniejsz^ formuh\ nietaforycznn okreslajqcii glowny przedmiot tych badaií jest .jçzykowy obraz swiata”. W zwiqzku z tym. iz powstaj^ obecnie projekty studiów komparatyslycznych na duzíi skalç, warto byt moze rozwazyc, czego takie ujçcie etnolingwistyki nie uwzglçdnia. Wizualna metafora obrazów implikuje, ze mówincy si\ w slanie wyjsc ix>za swiat i patrzec nan (oraz nazywac go) z zewmprz. Artykul oinawia dwie kcinsekwencje tej inetafory, które mog^ przysporzyc problemów. Po pierwsze, wyizolowanie jçzyka ze swiata ludzkich dzialan, którego jyzyk wszak jest czçsci^. prowadzi do przyjçcia kognitywistycznego modeln znaczenia jako oddzielnego stmmienia komunikaeji. Taki model nie pasuje do eodziennego doswiadezenia przezroczystosci jyzyka. Po drugie, wyizolowanie jçzyka z zycia sprzyja stosowaniu metod „bezczasowych” oraz studiom nad stowami wyalKtrahowanymi z sytuaeji, w której zostaly one uzyte (jesli nie wyjçtymi z kontekstu). Przyjmuj^c takie metafory i inetody, inozetny stracic z oczu znaczn^ czçsc tego, co jest istotne dla jyzyka poUx;znego — przedmiotu badan etnonauki.
Was bringt der typologisch-kontrastive Blick auf die Grammatik des Deutschen? Eine Zwischenbilanz
(2008)
Ich nehme den Abstand von einigen Jahren und die in diesen Jahren geleistete Arbeit zum Anlass für eine kleine Zwischenbilanz, die sich auf das Nominalprojekt bezieht. Keine Zwischenbilanz im Sinne eines quantitativ gestützten Nachweises erbrachter Leistung – man mag sich über die publizierten Ergebnisse anhand der Publikationsliste auf der Internetseite des Projekts informieren (vgl. <www.ids-mannheim.de/gra/eurostudien.html>) – sondern eher ein reflexives Bilanzieren: Haben sich die Erwartungen, das Projekt werde einen innovativen Zugang zur Grammatik des Deutschen eröffnen, es werde Erkenntnisgewinn bringen, erfüllt oder zumindest als erfüllbar erwiesen?
Ausgangspunkt ist die z. B. von Hawkins und König vertretene These, kontrastive Grammatikschreibung sei das ,Komplement‘ der Typologie, die auf dem Hintergrund des Projekts „Grammatik des Deutschen im europäischen Vergleich" einer kritischen Prüfung und Modifikation unterzogen wird. Als Exemplifikation werden zwei Phänomenbereiche der deutschen und der rumänischen Grammatik, vor allem nach Maßgabe ihrer Darstellung in der deutsch-rumänisch kontrastiven Grammatik, vergleichend untersucht: die Kategorie des Genus und die Markierung syntaktischer Funktionen durch Kasusdifferenzierung oder andere Mittel, insbesondere die ,differentielle Objektmarkierung'. In beiden Fällen kann gezeigt werden, dass typologische Generalisierungen, etwa die mögliche Struktur von Genussystemen oder Hierarchien wie die Belebtheits- und die Definitheitshierarchie betreffend, dem kontrastiven Vergleich zu mehr Erklärungskraft verhelfen.
Research on syntactic ambiguity resolution in language comprehension has shown that subjects' processing decisions are influenced by a variety of heterogeneous factors such as e.g., syntactic complexity, semantic fit and the discourse frequency of the competing structures. The present paper investigates a further potentially relevant factor in such processes: effects of syntagmatic lexical chunking (or matching to a complex memorized prefab) whose occurrence would be predicted from usage-based assumptions about linguistic categorisation. Focusing on the widely studied so-called DO/SC-ambiguity in which a post-verbal NP is syntactically ambiguous between a direct object and the subject of an embedded clause, potentially biasing collocational chunks of the relevant type are identified in a number of corpus-linguistic pretests and then investigated in a self-paced reading experiment. The results show a significant increase in processing difficulty from a collocationally neutral over a lexically biasing to a strongly biasing condition. This suggests that syntagmatically complex and partially schematic templates of the kind envisioned in usage-based Construction Grammar may impinge on speakers' online processing decisions during sentence comprehension.
Introduction
(2008)
In usage-based Construction Grammar, grammatical structure is assumed to ‘sedimenl’ from concrete linguistic experience as an automatic by-product o f repeated similar categorisation judgments (a process known as schematisation). At the same time, there is functional pressure on prospective inputs to such schematisations to retain or develop specialised properties that differentiate them from their near neighbours, i.e. other stored units in the constructicon (Goldberg: 1995). Moreover, Speakers are not assumed to necessarily extract all possible generalisations from their input. Using the example o f a group of German support verb constructions, the present study outlines a corpus-linguistic approach to identifying those Schemas that really seem to be formed by Speakers, and how they can be kept apart from mere potential generalisations.
Weltansichten aus sprachlicher und rechtlicher Perspektive. Zur Ontisierung von Konzepten des Rechts
(2008)
The multiple gradations of German strong verbs are but manifestations of a rather uncomplicated system. There is a small number of ways to make up ablaut forms; these types of formation are identifiable in formal terms and, what is more, they have definite functions as morphological markers. Using classifications of stem forms according to quality, complexity and quantity of vowels, three types of operations involved in ablaut formation are identified. Ablaut always includes a change of quality type or a change of complexity type, and in addition it may include a change of quantity type. Ablaut forms are clearly distinguished as against bases (and against each other): their vocalism meets a defined standard of dissimilarity. On this basis, gradations are collected into inflectional classes that are defined in strictly synchronic terms. These classes continue the historical seven classes known from reference grammars. For the majority of strong verbs, membership in these classes (and thus ablaut) is predictable.
One problem of data-driven answer extraction in open-domain factoid question answering is that the class distribution of labeled training data is fairly imbalanced. In an ordinary training set, there are far more incorrect answers than correct answers. The class-imbalance is, thus, inherent to the classification task. It has a deteriorating effect on the performance of classifiers trained by standard machine learning algorithms. They usually have a heavy bias towards the majority class, i.e. the class which occurs most often in the training set. In this paper, we propose a method to tackle class imbalance by applying some form of cost-sensitive learning which is preferable to sampling. We present a simple but effective way of estimating the misclassification costs on the basis of class distribution. This approach offers three benefits. Firstly, it maintains the distribution of the classes of the labeled training data. Secondly, this form of meta-learning can be applied to a wide range of common learning algorithms. Thirdly, this approach can be easily implemented with the help of state-of-the-art machine learning software.
Eine kleine Umfrage unter 33 Nicht-Linguisten ergab, dass nach deren Sprachwissen bei weder und bei entweder „Monogamie“ herrscht. Als Gefährten wurden stets und ausschließlich noch bzw. oder genannt. Zum Vergleich wurde auch nach zwar gefragt, wo aus Sicht der Probanden „Polygamie“ vorzuliegen scheint. Zwar wurde von den meisten eine „Hauptfrau“, nämlich aber, angegeben, aber in nicht geringer Zahl stattdessen oder zusätzlich auch einer oder mehrere weitere Partner. Doch im Folgenden soll es nicht um diese Form des abstrakten, lexikalisch-paradigmatischen Sprachwissens gehen, sondern um die empirische Untersuchung der grammatisch-syntagmatischen Realität in Texten unter Berücksichtigung der dahinterstehenden Textkompetenz.
Lexical chaining has become an important part of many NLP tasks. However, the goodness of a chaining process and hence its annotation output depends on the quality of the chaining resource. Therefore, a framework for chaining is needed which integrates divergent resources in order to balance their deficits and to compare their strengths and weaknesses. In this paper we present an application that incorporates the framework of a meta model of lexical chaining exemplified on three resources and its generalized exchange format.