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Several studies have examined effects of explicit task demands on eye movements in reading. However, there is relatively little prior research investigating the influence of implicit processing demands. In this study, processing demands were manipulated by means of a between-subject manipulation of comprehension question difficulty. Consistent with previous results from Wotschack and Kliegl, the question difficulty manipulation influenced the probability of regressing from late in sentences and re-reading earlier regions; readers who expected difficult comprehension questions were more likely to re-read. However, this manipulation had no reliable influence on eye movements during first-pass reading of earlier sentence regions. Moreover, for the subset of sentences that contained a plausibility manipulation, the disruption induced by implausibility was not modulated by the question manipulation. We interpret these results as suggesting that comprehension demands influence reading behavior primarily by modulating a criterion for comprehension that readers apply after completing first-pass processing.
In recent years, reading has become an increasingly digital experience. In addition to various subjective impressions about the quality of reading from digital media, e.g. that it is more effortful than reading conventional books, a number of more scientific questions arise at the interface of reading research and book studies. Here, we summarize several new insights on reading effort and reading behavior on digital media. Part one reviews a study in which young and elderly adults read short texts on three different reading devices: a paper page, an e-reader and a tablet computer and answered comprehension questions about them while their eye movements and EEG were recorded. Older adults showed faster mean fixation durations and lower EEG theta band voltage density – known to covary with memory encoding and retrieval – when reading from a tablet computer in comparison to the other devices. Young adults showed comparable fixation durations and theta activity for all three devices. These results can be explained by better text discriminability (higher contrast) of the tablet computer. Older readers may benefit from this enhanced contrast because contrast sensitivity decreases with age. In the second part, we present an explorative study about the influence of font type and typographic alignment (flush left vs. justified) on reading from a tablet computer. Importantly, the eyes do not fall between – increasingly larger – spaces, as expected, but – to the contrary – use these spaces for planning an optimal fixation of the next word. In summary, the perspective presented here provides initial evidence about the fruitfulness of interdisciplinary research between experimental reading, neurocognition and book studies.
A central question in psycholinguistics is how the human brain processes language in real time. To answer this question, the differences between auditory and visual processing have to be considered. The present dissertation examines the extent to which event-related potentials (ERPs) in the human electroencephalogram (EEG) interact with different modes of presentation during sentence comprehension. Besides the two classical modalities, auditory and rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP), the monitoring of readers’ eye movements was chosen as a new mode of presentation. Here, the temporal paradox between neuronal ERP effects and behavioral effects in the eye movement record were of particular interest. Specifically, by concurrently measuring ERPs and eye movements in natural reading, the dissertation aimed to shed light on the counterintuitive fact that difficulties in sentence comprehension arise earlier in eye movement measures than in the corresponding neuronal ERP effects. In contrast to RSVP and the auditory modality, reading offers a parafoveal preview of upcoming words (Rayner 1998), which enables the brain to process information of words before these are fixated for the first time (in foveal vision). When the word Gegenteil in example (1) below is fixated and processed, the brain concurrently processes some information of the upcoming parafoveal words von and weiß. (1) Schwarz ist das Gegenteil von weiß. (2) Schwarz […] blau. (3) Schwarz […] nett. The parafoveal preview mostly provides orthographic (word form) information, while semantic information is not conveyed (Inhoff & Starr 2004; White 2008). Whereas word form and lexical meaning are processed simultaneously with RSVP and auditory presentation, the parafoveal preview in natural reading allows for a temporal decoupling such that word forms are processed before meaning. This is one reason for the faster information uptake in reading. The present dissertation is the first to systematically investigate the influence of the parafoveal preview in sentence processing. Participants read sentences such as in (1)-(3), in which two adjectives were either antonyms (1), semantically related non-antonyms (2), or semantically unrelated non-antonyms (3). ERPs were computed for the last fixation before the target word (the sentence-final word in 1-3), which was assumed to capture parafoveal processing, and for the first fixation on the target, that should reflect foveal processing. The results were compared to two experiments using identical stimuli with auditory and RSVP presentation, and the parafoveal preview clearly led to different ERP results. While the RSVP and auditory presentations replicated the finding of a P300 to the second antonym in (1) (Kutas & Iragui 1998; Roehm et al. 2007), there was no P300 in response to antonyms at any fixation position in natural reading. However, the dissociation of parafoveal and foveal processing in reading also made it possible to disentangle different processes underlying the N400. There was a reduced parafoveal N400 for (1,2) compared with (3), which could be attributed to the preactivation of the word forms of the expected antonyms and of semantically related non-antonyms. In foveal vision, all non-antonyms (2,3) showed an enhanced N400 compared with (1) because they were unexpected and implausible in the sentence context. This dissociation between the preactivation of a word-form and the contextual fit of a word’s meaning is impossible with the other two modes of presentation, because orthographic and semantic information become available almost at the same time and are thus processed simultaneously. Furthermore, the parafoveal N400 effect was not accompanied by changes in the duration of the corresponding fixation, whereas the foveal N400 was. Similarly, with the concurrent measurement of ERPs and eye movements, the temporal paradox described above remained, as effects in the eye movement record preceded the neuronal ERP effects. Further support for these central findings came from two additional experiments that investigated different stimuli with concurrent ERP-eye tracking measures. Altogether, the experiments revealed that the previous findings on the language-related N400 can be replicated with natural reading, but they can also be differentiated qualitatively by virtue of the characteristics of natural reading. Although the behavioral and neuronal effects mirrored one another, not every neuronal effect necessarily translates into a behavioral output. Finally, even concurrent ERP-eye tracking measures cannot resolve the temporal paradox.
Hierarchical predictive coding has been identified as a possible unifying principle of brain function, and recent work in cognitive neuroscience has examined how it may be affected by age–related changes. Using language comprehension as a test case, the present study aimed to dissociate age-related changes in prediction generation versus internal model adaptation following a prediction error. Event-related brain potentials (ERPs) were measured in a group of older adults (60–81 years; n = 40) as they read sentences of the form “The opposite of black is white/yellow/nice.” Replicating previous work in young adults, results showed a target-related P300 for the expected antonym (“white”; an effect assumed to reflect a prediction match), and a graded N400 effect for the two incongruous conditions (i.e. a larger N400 amplitude for the incongruous continuation not related to the expected antonym, “nice,” versus the incongruous associated condition, “yellow”). These effects were followed by a late positivity, again with a larger amplitude in the incongruous non-associated versus incongruous associated condition. Analyses using linear mixed-effects models showed that the target-related P300 effect and the N400 effect for the incongruous non-associated condition were both modulated by age, thus suggesting that age-related changes affect both prediction generation and model adaptation. However, effects of age were outweighed by the interindividual variability of ERP responses, as reflected in the high proportion of variance captured by the inclusion of by-condition random slopes for participants and items. We thus argue that – at both a neurophysiological and a functional level – the notion of general differences between language processing in young and older adults may only be of limited use, and that future research should seek to better understand the causes of interindividual variability in the ERP responses of older adults and its relation to cognitive performance.
Die zentrale Forschungsmethode in der Psycholinguistik ist das psychologische Experiment. Dadurch unterscheidet sich die psycholinguistische Forschung in mancher Hinsicht von anderen Gebieten der Sprachwissenschaften, in denen die Beobachtung natürlichen Vorkommens sprachlicher Phänomene eine deutlich größere Rolle spielt. Ich werde im folgenden Beitrag nach einer kurzen Definition psycholinguistischer Fragestellungen zunächst Experiment und Beobachtung einander gegenüberstellen und dabei dafür argumentieren, dass es sich hier um einander ergänzende Herangehensweisen handelt. Ich werde dann verschiedene psycholinguistische Experimentaltechniken vorstellen, von sehr einfachen Fragebogentechniken bis hin zu technisch höchst aufwendigen Methoden wie der Messung von Blickbewegungen oder von sprachspezifischen EEG-Mustern. Hier werde ich versuchen, deutlich zu machen, dass nicht die Kosten allein die Qualität einer Technik ausmachen, sondern die Angemessenheit für die Fragestellung.
Die Alltagsvorstellungen zum Textverstehen werden einer kritischen Analyse unterzogen. Texte enthalten demnach keine Bedeutungen, sondern sind Auslöser für einen Prozess der Konstruktion multipler mentaler Repräsentationen, vor allem einer Oberflächenrepräsentation, einer propositionalen Repräsentation und eines mentalen Modells. Der Text dient als Datenbasis für die Modellkonstruktion, für die Modellevaluation und ggf. für die Modellrevision. Die Konstruktion mentaler Modelle und der hierarchieniedrigeren mentalen Repräsentationen ist ein Prozess der Kohärenzbildung, der auch auf unterschiedlichen thematischen Ebenen stattfinden kann. Je nachdem, auf wie viel Ebenen ein Themenwechsel stattfindet, ist der thematische Aufbau eines Texts an bestimmten Stellen kontinuierlich und an anderen Stellen diskontinuierlich. Je diskontinuierlicher der Textaufbau, desto schwieriger wird für den Leser der Prozess der Fokus-Nachführung, mit dem der Leser dem Autor folgt. Die bei einem Themenwechsel erforderliche Suche nach dem neu fokussierten Referenten wird durch die Topic-Information bzw. durch die von ihr getragenen Suchparameter gesteuert. Außerdem erhält der Leser Hinweise darauf, ob eine Information für ihn neu oder ihm bereits bekannt ist. Hinsichtlich der weiteren Forschung wird für eine stärkere interdisziplinäre Zusammenarbeit plädiert.
Der Beitrag gibt einen Überblick über den aktuellen Stand der Forschung zum Textverstehen aus psycholinguistischer Sicht. Zunächst wird kurz auf die Entwicklung der Psycholinguistik hin zu einer kognitiven und kommunikativ orientierten Sprachwissenschaft eingegangen. Anschließend werden die wichtigsten konzeptuellen, theoretischen und methodologischen Grundlagen der Textverstehensforschung vorgestellt. Wichtige semantische Verarbeitungseinheiten des Textverstehens sind die mentalen Propositionen sowie die mentalen Modelle. Die aktuelle Forschung zeigt, dass diese Einheiten nicht getrennt voneinander gesehen werden dürfen, sondern eng aufeinander bezogen sind. Auf der semantischen Ebene des Textverstehens spielen sich Prozesse der Referenz, der Kohärenz und der Inferenzbildung ab, die nicht nur vom Text, sondern auch vom Wissen und von den Interessen der Textrezipienten sowie von der Kommunikationssituation beeinflusst werden. Die aktuellen psycholinguistischen Theorien bilden Ausschnitte dieser komplexen Interaktion mit formalen Methoden ab. Nach einem kurzen Hinweis auf die psycholinguistische Forschung zur Ontogenese des Textverstehens werden Perspektiven für die Anwendung der Theorien auf praktische Fragestellungen wie die der Textverständlichkeit, der Förderung der Textkompetenz sowie der maschinellen Sprachverarbeitung aufgezeigt.